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Perussia F., "Some
cues against the cross-cultural validity of locus of control
as a basic personality trait". Perceptual and Motor Skills,
1995, 80, 1139-1144.
Some cues against the cross-cultural
validity
of a Locus of Control basic
personality trait
Summary
A scale, containing the three most representative
items of Rotter's Internal-External locus of control scale, embedded
in a broader series of items (about general life themes) in Likert
format, was submitted, in two studies, to two samples of 437
adult individuals and of 380 psychology students, both in Italy.
Analysis showed no significant correlations among the ratings
of the three items of Rotter, for both samples. Moreover, responses
to these three items are included in different factors, according
to a factor analysis on the total series of items, over both
samples. The data suggest that locus of control (in the sense
of Rotter) reflects independent traits and values rather than
discrete aspects of personality. For the most part such values
seem to depend on the cultural context of reference.
____________
The locus of control theory is based,
according to Rotter (1966, p. 25), on the contention that "People
in American culture have developed generalized expectancies in
learning situations in regard to whether or not reinforcement,
reward, or success in these situations is dependent upon their
own behavior or is controlled by external forces, particularly
luck, chance, or experimenter control, which are fairly consistent
from individual to individual ... Individuals differ in a generalized
expectancy in how they regard the same situation. Such generalized
expectancies can be measured."
A social learning theory was developed
by Rotter (1966, 1975), which provides a basis for studies of
situations of complex learning can be studied (Rotter, Chance,
& Phares, 1972). Subsequently many authors including Rotter
produced research consistent with the notion of Internal-External
locus of control as a discrete personality variable. Research
on locus of control has been wide spread as evident in the enormous
literature of the last twenty years. There have been many books
(Lefcourt, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984) and reviews (Lefcourt, 1991)
on the topic. Anyway the research on locus of control has not
been systematically extended beyond the American context.
Method
The hypothesis is based on a falsificationistic
strategy. The idea is that, if locus of control in the classical
sense of Rotter is a basic trait discriminating subjects, it
must represent an unique factor in the structure of subjects'
answers to a scale of general life-style statements. If it is
not a basic trait items will be dispersed across factors, relating
to various values, more typical of subjects' basic attitudes.
This will be more evident when the scale is applied in a different
cultural environment.
The strategy was to embed a basic locus
of control scale within a wider scale of generalized attitudes
toward aspects of life, relevant for the sample. Then a correlation
matrix and a factor analysis conducted was calculated to state
whether the items were correlated or not.
First research
In the first study I used a scale derived
from the I-E scale of Rotter (1966) as part of a broader study
(Perussia, 1990) aimed at detecting the associations among several
items related to life values, personality, and attitudes toward
the present state of the world and in particular toward the environment.
The items were selected, on the basis of the literature and preceding
qualitative research about the most typical statements people
make on these topics.
My I-E scale has only three items from
Rotter,.choosen because, according to Rotter's data, they best
correlate with the total score of his I-E scale. The first two
items were translated directly from English into Italian; the
wording of the third has been slightly modified to make it more
suitable for the Italian way of speaking (from "Without
the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader" to "Without
the right breaks, it is difficult for an individual to be successful
in life").
According to a trend in research concerning
the locus of control construct (Phares, 1976; Galli, Nigro, 1987;
Lefcourt, 1982, 1991), these three items have been changed from
a forced choice format into a Likert-type format. The items are:
(1) Many times I feel that I have little
influence over the things that happen to me;
(2) By taking an active part in political
and social affairs, the people can control world events;
(3) Without the right breaks, it is
difficult for an individual to be successful in life.
The wider Life-style scale was based
on a questionnaire of 99 items in Likert format, among which
there were, randomly distributed, the above items.
The complete scale was administered
to 437 individuals throughout 1987 of whom: 216 persons (49.4%)
were men and 221 (50.6%) women; 181 (41.4%) were 18 to 34 years
old and 256 (58.6%) were 35 years old or older; 159 (36.3%) had
completed grade 8 or less, and 278 (63.7%) more than grade 8.
The sample was not representative of a particular universe (neither
of Italian people nor of college students) but it has been formed
by instructing professional interviewers to contact a broad range
(by age, education, place of residence) of Italian adults (50%
men, 50% women).
The data were factor analyzed using
principal components (Mineigen criterion) with varimax rotation
according to the SAS statistic package. Analysis was carried
out on responses to all 99 items of the test.
Results
No correlation could be detected among
the three I-E items in the scale. Correlation indexes between
responses to three I-E items were between items 1 and 2 0.0004;
between items 1 and 3 -0.063; between items 2 and 3 0.034.
Factor analysis suggested 34 factors
for the 99 items. The three items from Rotter's locus of control
scale loaded in the statistical analysis on three distinct factors.
Following are the items that compute each factor, and the saturation
value for each factor, respectively, reporting only items with
saturation values over 0.35.
Factor A
I feel I am actively involved in politics.
(0.66)
I always try to have updated knowledge
of our country's political events. (0.56)
By taking an active part in political
and social affairs the people can control world events. (I-E
Item 2) (0.41)
Factor B
Our industrial society cannot overcome
certain limits. (0.67)
Many times I feel I have little influence
over the things that happen to me. (I-E Item 1) (0.48)
It would be easier to reduce pollution
if everybody used public transportation more than private cars.
(0.37)
Factor C
Without the right breaks, it is difficult
for an individual to be successful in life. (I-E Item 3) (0.77)
We can consider Factor A as "Confidence
about participation in political activities"; Factor B as
"Rejection to the contemporary civilization of machines";
Factor C, which contains only one item, as "Distrust of
one's own skills."
Discussion
The results of this study supply clues
that the three items of the I-E locus of control scale used here
are likely to measure variables that, having no intercorrelations
are independent of each other.
The construct locus of control is neither
a unique nor a general factor but perhaps may represent at least
three distinct factors at least in the sample of Italian adults
studied here.
It may be hypothesized that detecting
locus of control depends, by and large, on the methods used to
test it. Depending on these, the construct may not exist or the
form may be different from that originally identified.
Detecting locus of control as a distinct
variable may also depend on the characteristics of the sample.
Here we tested a sample of Italian adults of a broad age-range
and of varied education, whereas the various samples studied
by Rotter (1966) were generally composed of students in psychology
from the United States. Consequently we may suspect that the
locus of control does not rerepresent "people" but
a more limited and culturally biased group, e.g. psychology students.
A similar hypotesis has been proposed
by some other researchers (Robinson, Shaver e Wrightsman, 1991;
Sears, 1986) on the basis of the statement that "maximal
predictions are best obtained if the researcher taylors measures
to particular populations and concerns rather than relying upon
more global and less targeted measures, which may be irrelevant
to the cares of the particular sample being assessed for their
locus of control beliefs" (Lefcourt, 1991, p. 414-415).
To verify the last hypothesis a second
study was done with a very homogeneous sample, similar to the
one used by Rotter but in a different cultural context.
Second research
Rotter's same three items of locus of
control from the research described above were used as part of
a broader study (Perussia, 1993) aimed at detecting the behaviors,
attitudes, and values related to actual life of a significant
sample of psychology students at the University of Turin Italy.
As in the first study, the three items
were randomly distributed in a questionnaire related to general
life-style statements in 58 items. As in the first study, the
items have been selected from the literature as most typical
statements students voice on these topics.
The wider life style scale was submitted
to 380 psychology students in Turin, representative of the student
body, throughout 1992.
As in the first study the data were
factor analyzed using principal components (Mineigen criterion)
with varimax rotation according to the SAS statistic package.
Analysis was carried out on responses to all 58 items.
Results
As in the first study correlations were
minimal among Rotter's three I-E items in the large scale. Values
of Pearson correlation between items were for items 1 and 2 -0.082,
between items 1 and 3 0.123, between items 2 and 3 -0.095.
Factor analysis indicated 17 factors
(for the 58 items). As in the first study, the three items loaded
by statistical analysis on three distinct factors. Following
are the items for each factor present in the second study, and
the saturation values for each factor, respectively, reporting
only items with saturation values over 0.35.
Factor A
Fine clothes make life finer. (0.74)
Whatever people say, money definitely
helps in being happy. (0.65)
What really counts in life is to have
fun. (0.55)
In life it is better to care for yourself,
and let the others fight their own battle. (0.50)
The care of your own look is fundamental.
(0.48)
Without the right breaks, it is difficult
for an individual to be successful in life. (I-E Item 3) (0.41)
If today we live better than once, it
depends mainly on industrial development. (0.35)
Factor B
By taking an active part in political
and social affairs the people can control world events. (I-E
Item 2) (0.72)
I am keen on being acquainted with what
happens in the world. (0.64)
I feel I am actively involved in politics.
(0.55)
Workers' rights are inviolable. (0.47)
I am concerned in environmental problems.
(0.47)
Factor C
Many times I feel I have little influence
over the things that happen to me. (I-E Item 1) (0.69)
I often have the feeling of not understanding
myself. (0.68)
I am very sure of myself. (- O.46)
My life is too dull and foreseeable.
(0.46)
I am troubled about my working future.
(0.40)
It is difficult to succeed in having
a truly important love affair. (0.36)
We can label Factor A as "Confidence
in yourself," Factor B as "Involvement in politics,"
and Factor C as "Hedonistic egocentrism."
Discussion
The results of this second study hint
the same clues as the first study but are extended to the specific
case of a homogeneous sample of psychology students, as Rotter
tested.
The three items from Rotter's I-E locus
of control scale measure variables that, showing no correlation
among each other, are independent.The variable "locus of
control" is neither a unique or a general factor but perhaps
imight represent a minimum of three distinct factors, also in
the sample of Italian psychology students.
General discussion
The implications of the results with
two different samples and with a clear statistical representativeness,
seem to confirm the hypothesis that locus of control is not a
basic or generalized personality trait.
The fact that it does not work with
samples from Italy suggests that the construct is culturally
biased.
Maybe it is better to subdivide the
concept of locus of control into several other variables (e.g.
political sensitivity, confidence in yourself, suspicion toward
contemporary society, and so forth).
The data do not imply that locus of
control does not exist but simply that using three items from
Rotter's 23 assesses a culturally determined value instead of
a specific personality trait. In fact, the potential utility
of the concept remains unchanged from a theoretical view if a
particular measure of the trait does not work in a cross-cultural
check.
The directions of new research in the
field can be a different definition in the basic theory of locus
of control, a refinement of the instruments, a cross-cultural
validation of the newly hypothesized structure of the construct.
References
Galli, I., & Nigro, G. (1987) La
fortuna, l'abilità, il caso: introduzione allo studio
del locus of control. Torino: Centro Scientifico Torinese.
Lefcourt, H.M. (Ed.) (1981) Research
with the locus of control construct. Vol.1 New York: Academic
Press.
Lefcourt, H.M. (1982) Locus of control:
current trends in theory and research (2nd). Hillsdale NJ:
Erlbaum.
Lefcourt, H.M. (Ed) (1983) Research
with the locus of control construct. Vol.2 New York: Academic
Press.
Lefcourt, H.M. (Ed.) (1984) Research
with the locus of control construct. Vol.3 New York: Academic
Press.
Lefcourt, H.M. (1991) Locus of control.
In J.P. Robinson, P.R. Shaver & L.S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures
of personality and social psychological attitudes. New York:
Academic Press, pp.413-499.
Perussia, F. (1990) Immagini di natura:
contributi di ricerca. Milano: Guerini & Associati.
Perussia, F. (1993) Diventare psicologo:
una ricerca sulle motivazioni e sulla costruzione dell'identità
negli studenti di psicologia a Torino. Torino: Upsel.
Robinson J.P., Shaver P.R., & Wrightsman
L.S. (1991) Criteria for scale selection and evaluation. In J.P.
Robinson, P.R. Shaver, & L.S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures
of personality and social psychological attitudes. New York:
Academic Press pp.1-16
Rotter, J. B. (1966) Generalized expectations
for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological
Monographs, 80, No1 (whole Number 609).
Rotter, J. B. (1975) Some problems and
misconceptions related to the construct of internal versus external
control of reinforcement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 43, 56-67.
Rotter, J.B., Chance, J.E., & Phares
E.J. (1972) Applications of a social learning theory of personality.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Sears, D. (1986) College sophomores
in the laboratory: influences of a narrow data base on social
psychology's view of human nature. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 51, 515-530.
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