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In order to assess the image of psychologists
held by psychologists themselves we made reference to the authors
of the specialized dictionaries of psychology as jury of privileged
witnesses. We conducted a content analysis on 44 specialized
dictionaries in the field of psychology with regard to the terms:
“psychologist”, “psychoanalyst”, “psychiatrist”,
“psychotherapist”, “psychologist’s fallacy”.
The definition of psychologist which emerges includes a few principal
concepts: training, fields of interest, research, teaching, profession,
vocational settings, not a doctor, not a psychiatrist, cannot
prescribe drugs, and is concerned just minimally with psychotherapy,
psychological diagnosis, and prevention. In light of these findings
it seems clear that what is often defined as a misunderstanding
by the public of the image of psychologists is perhaps due, in
part, to the lack of clarity of the definition of psychologist
by psychologists themselves.
Who is a psychologist (a psychoanalyst,
a psychiatrist)? A definition according to dictionaries of psychology
__________________________
One of the most classical issues in the
history of psychology deals with the discussion about the image
and the definition of psychologists. Many authors have conducted
research about the image of psychologists (and of psychology)
held by the public and that held by psychologists themselves
(Benjamin, 1986.; McNeil, 1959; Moscovici, 1961; PERUSSIA, 1994;
Thumin e Zebelman, 1967; Webb, 1989; Webb e Speer, 1985, 1986;
Wood, Jones e Benjamin, 1986).
Another useful way to assess the image of psychologists can also
be by the analysis of definitions produced in the same psychological
field. A particularly authoritative source is represented by
the specialty dictionaries produced by experts for experts.
From this point of view, such dictionaries are particulary interesting
as they propose a formal and systematic description of single
psychological concepts. In some sense, the authors of the specialized
dictionaries of psychology can be considered as privileged witnesses
of psychology. Thus, they exercise the power of reliable jury
as regards the definitions we seek.
Methodology
We identified a wide sample of 44 well known
specialized dictionaries in the field of psychology. 29 are general
psychological dictionaries and encyclopedias; 10 are specialized
psychological dictionaries; 5 are medical-psychiatric dictionaries.
The list of the dictionaries is reported at the end of this paper
(List of analyzed dictionaries).
We examined five complementary terms of psychologist reported
in the psychological dictionaries referring specifically to the
psychologist as a person or as an actor.
Broadly speaking, the definition of psychologist (instead of
the definition of psychology) is generally represented by the
following five complementary terms: psychologist; psychotherapist;
psychoanalyst; psychiatrist; psychologist's fallacy.
We present here a content analysis conducted on all of the definitions
available in the dictionaries in our sample. Such definitions
are presented below and are assembled with the intention of deriving
a single enlarged definition based upon all the definitions we
have come across. Such definitions or expressions are reported
in their original form.
Results
Generally, we see that the definitions of
psychologist and related terms are not always present in our
sample of general psychological dictionaries and encyclopedias
(29 titles). Moreover, most definitions are fairly concise, that
is, one or two lines.
A definition of "Psychologist" appears only in 52%
of our texts. A definition of "Psychiatrist" in 52%.
A definition of "Psychoanalyst" in 41%. A definition
of "Psychotherapist" in 38%. We also see that in 31%
of the sample the definition of "Psychologist's fallacy"
appeared.
In the 10 specialized psychological dictionaries, a definition
of "Psychologist" appears only in two. A definition
of "Psychiatrist" in one. A definition of "Psychoanalyst"
in one. A definition of "Psychotherapist" in one. In
none of these dictionaries can we find a definition of "Psychologist's
fallacy".
All of the five medical-psychiatric dictionaries include a definition
of "Psychologist". A definition of "Psychiatrist"
is in four. A definition of "Psychoanalyst" in four.
A definition of "Psychotherapist" in two. In none of
these dictionaries did we find a definition of "Psychologist's
fallacy".
For a more specific analysis of the single terms that directly
or indirectly define a psychologist we made reference to the
whole sample of the dictionaries. We propose then a description
of what we report, indicating within brackets the frequency that
each particular expression appeared in the sample.
Psychologist
The elements that characterize the definition
of psychologist are first of all related to the fact that he
or she "has made a course of training in psychology at least
through the level of the master's degree" (4) or else "through
the doctorate" (3). Occasionally, the kind of training undertaken
is defined in a more specific way, such as, "a professional
psychologist must have a doctor of philosophy degree with a major
in psychology from an accreditated college or university"
(1). More often, we find the reference to a general training,
without any precise information about the academic profile: "person
trained in psychology, usually with a graduate degree" (1);
"someone trained in the study of psychology" (1); "who
has made a specialized study of the science of psychology"
(1); "who has made an extensive study of psychology under
professional guidance" (1).
A part of the profile of the psychologist includes her or his
cultural curiosities rather than just a formal level of vocational
experiences. From this point of view, the psychologist first
of all is a person who cultivates a broad intellectual interest
about psychology. This perspective coincides with the definition
"who is concerned with psychology" (2); "one versed
in the facts of psychology" (1); "one versed in the
theories of psychology" (1). Even more generally "a
psychologist's interest may be in any of the fields of psychology"
(1).
The psychologist is more than a curious person (who collects
what he already knows), and can be considered a researcher (who
runs along new roads). We find, therefore, in the definitions
of psychologist some of the following ideas. He or she "devotes
himself to research" (2); "makes a vocation of studying
the behavior of organism" (1); "studies psychological
processes" (1). He or she may be considered also as a "scientist
[namely one who] is interested in expanding the knowledge of
behavior and in developing theories which will provide interpretation
of this knowledge" (2).
We find frequently the reference to teaching activity and to
university work as a clearly defining element of a field of psychology
considered primarily academic. "Most psychologists teach
in college or university" (2); "devotes himself to
teaching" (2); "many spend time in the administrative
problems involved in the departmental education" (2).
The applied dimension is less emphasyzed so that there appears
as defining elements of psychologist "one versed in the
practical applications of psychology" (1) otherwise "one
versed in the procedures of psychology" (1), while "some
psychologists have their primary appointment as members of a
hospital or clinic" (2). In general, applied psychological
activities are not part of the duties of academic psychologist.
"Professional person (= holds a job and earns a living)"
(2).
Also, we find explicit definition of psychologist as first an
academic but also working in other fields. For example "an
increasing number of psychologists work directly for industry"
(2) or else "work as part of the military" (2) or in
various "vocational settings (school, prison, hospital,
clinic, business, military, government)" (2).
An important element, not very often mentioned but relevant,
is that the psychologist is not a physician, and he or she does
not have the authority and privileges of a physician. "Person
qualified to investigate psychological matters through science,
rather than someone seeking to understand and treat mental illness
through medical techniques (as psychiatrists)" (1). "Is
not a medical doctor" (1). Particularly: "clinical
psychologists cannot prescribe drugs" (1).
There is only one case in which we have a definition of psychologist
related to the formal mechanisms of her or his enrollment in
a legally defined professional register. "In some states
the use of this term is restricted to persons meeting certain
professional standards. The standard for associate membership
in the American Psychological Association may be taken as defining
the minimum qualification of a psychologist: two years of graduate
study and one year of professional work in psychology, three
years of graduate study" (1).
Psychoanalyst
In the case of psychoanalyst, who is many
times considered a psychologist with particular characteristics,
we find emphasis upon her or his training or practice and experience.
Thus, the psychoanalyst is primarily "who is fully trained
in the theory of psychoanalysis" (4); "who is fully
trained in the practice of psychoanalysis" (2); "someone
trained in the techniques of psychoanalysis" (2); "who
has had training in psychoanalysis" (1). The training is
seldom specified: "a typical training programme may last
for 4 years and will include a personal analysis of the trainee"
(2); "who have had psychoanalytic training at a recognized
institute" (1).
Many definitions of psychoanalyst include not only psychoanalytic
training but other types of training as well. Some people point
out a kind of superimposition between the psychoanalyst and the
physician, so that the psychoanalyst is a "psychiatrist"
(3) or rather "someone trained initially as a physician"
(2); or "the term lay analyst is often used for predictioners
who have not taken a medical degree" (1). Some others instead
think about other courses, therefore psychoanalyst may be "someone
trained initially as a psychiatric social worker" (2); "someone
trained initially as a psychologist" (2); "who may
have had any of a number of different forms of training prior
to the psychoanalytical: a doctorate, or other advanced degree
in social work, a master's degree in psychology, a master's degree
in social work, a master's degree in counseling" (1).
The second point of reference, in the definition of psychoanalyst,
is represented by practical activity. The psychoanalyst is then
one who applies the principles of psychoanalysis. "Who practises
psychoanalysis" (4); "who employs the principles of
psychoanalysis in treatment" (2); "who practises psychotherapy
according to Freudian theory" (1); "who practises psychotherapy
according to Freudian methods" (1); "who uses the techniques
of psychoanalysis in a treatment setting" (1). Once in a
while, the use of psychoanalysis is referred specifically as
an interpretative tendency: "who is given to interpretations
of events in accordance with psychoanalytic theory" (1).
Sometimes he or she is generically defined as "psychotherapist"
(3) or "clinical psychologist" (2). We have even found
what we consider an ironic definition of psychoanalyst in a specialized
dictionary which is as follows: "who takes money from another
on the pretence that it is for the other's own good" (1).
Psychiatrist
Generally in our sample of dictionaries,
the greatest number of words is devoted to the definition of
psychiatrist, rather than to that of psychologist. This fact
seems to reflect a problem of complementarity of the two figures.
The psychiatrist is above all and definitely a physician. Such
a concept, evidently fundamental, is reported in various shades
which are almost identical: "physician" (4); "individual
qualified as a physician" (1); "person trained in medicine"
(1); "doctor of medicine" (1); "medical doctor"
(1); "medical specialist" (1); "who receives the
M.D. degree (a physician)" (1); "person licensed to
practice medicine" (1); "specialist in the general
medical aspects of the conditions (mental disorders)" (1)
More seldom, but with a certain frequency, a specific specialization
is mentioned rather than a basic medical training. "Who
specialises in psychiatry" (2); "who has a specialty
in abnormal psychology" (1); "most psychiatrist have
extensive specialization in psychiatry" (1); "who has
had special training in the area of mental disease" (1);
"someone specially trained in abnormal psychology"
(1).
A group of definitions stresses the fact that psychiatrists put
into effect interventions. The key word of this group of definitions
is "treatment", that is, the application of one's own
competences to another person. "Who specialises in the treatment
of mental disorders" (5); "someone specially trained
in the treatment of abnormal psychology" (1); "who
is engaged professionally in the treatment of psychic illness"
(1); "who is engaged professionally in the treatment of
mental illness" (1); "who is engaged professionally
in the care of psychic illness" (1); "who is engaged
professionally in the care of mental illness" (1); "who
is engaged in the treatment of mental disorders" (1); "who
practises psychiatry" (1); "who heals the mind"
(1).
Much importance is acknowledged to the diagnostic dimension of
the psychiatrist or rather to diagnosing a mental disease. "Who
specialises in the diagnosis of mental disorders" (3); "someone
specially trained in the diagnosis of abnormal psychology"
(1); "who is engaged professionally in the diagnosis of
psychic illness" (1); "who is engaged professionally
in the diagnosis of mental illness" (1); "who is engaged
in the diagnosis of mental disorders" (1); "(synonymous
of alienist =) a specialist in the determination of legally committable
insanity" (1).
Also, prevention in the field of mental hygiene is attributed
to the psychiatrist. "Who specialises in the prevention
of mental disorders" (1); "who is engaged professionally
in the prevention of psychic illness" (1); "who is
engaged professionally in the prevention of mental illness"
(1); "who is engaged in the prevention of mental disorders"
(1).
The tendency of the psychiatrist to employ modalities of physical
therapy, for instance pharmacological treatment, is particularly
emphasized as an element that differentiates him from the psychologist.
"Who uses chemical methods" (2); "who uses physical
methods" (2); "by virtue of the medical license, the
psychiatrist is legally authorized to prescribe drugs" (1);
"the primary difference between the psychiatrist and the
clinical psychologist is that the psychiatrist, by virtue of
the medical license, is legally authorized to prescribe drugs
while the clinical psychologist is not" (1).
Less emphasis is placed upon the psychiatrist’s competence
in the psychological field. "Who uses psychological methods"
(2); "specialist in the psychopathological aspects of the
conditions (mental disorders)" (1); "the actual practice
of the psychiatrist and the clinical psychologist overlap considerably"
(1). Then there is someone who point out the scarce psychological
competence of the psychiatrist, compared to the psychologist:
"few psychiatrist have background preparation in the science
of normal behavior" (1)
We find also a reference to the professional settings of the
psychiatrist, but narrowed essentially to the clinical intervention
in the psychopathological field. "Who works in mental hospitals"
(2); "who works in clinics" (2); "who works in
private practice" (2); "who works in public mental
health" (2).
The primary focus upon the applied nature of the psychiatrist,
at least in our sample of authors of psychological dictionaries,
yields only marginal references to her or his possible interests
in research. "Who specialises in the study of mental disorders"
(1); "specialist in the investigation of mental disorders"
(1); "who works in research" (2).
Some definitions attempt to present also legal definition of
psychiatrist. The picture that comes out is not very clear, but
there seems to be a vaguely critical note in some definitions.
"Who passes the written and oral examinations of the American
Board of Psychiatry and Neurology becomes a diplomate in psychiatry
and is said to be Board certified" (1); "under existing
laws in most States, the medical license is the only legally
necessary qualification (to work as a psychiatrist)" (1);
"physician who spends 4 years as a resident in a hospital
setting" (1); "in some states (e.g. California) an
ostheopathic physician with training in psychiatry may also legally
qualify as a psychiatrist" (1).
Psychotherapist
The definition of psychotherapist is primarily
operational. "Who practises psychotherapy" (6); "who
is professionally engaged in the practice of psychotherapy"
(2); "person professionally engaged in psychotherapy"
(1).
To a lesser extent, definitions are directed to a specific training
in the field. "Someone with specialist training in psychotherapy"
(3); "person trained to treat mental disorders, emotional
disorders, behavioral disorders" (1).
Another way to define psychotherapist consists in the specification
of any of her or his secondary characteristic which may suggest
even an indirect definition. "He or she is usually a psychiatrist"
(3); "psychotherapists may be psychiatrists (in which case
they will be trained as medical doctors)" (1); "he
or she is usually a clinical psychologist" (3); "he
or she is usually a psychiatric social worker" (3); "may
be clinical psychologists (in which case they need not be medically
trained, but will have a university training in the principles
of abnormal psychology" (1); "psychotherapists may
be psychoanalysts (in which case they will be trained in one
or other of the schools of psychoanalysis" (1). By contrast,
some authors define a psychotherapist relating not to what he
or she really is but to what he or she resembles: "the term
is not usually applied to teachers, physicians, clergymen, lawyers,
although their professional activity often has therapeutic value"
(1).
A great deal of attention is paid also to the legal qualification
of the psychotherapist although legal definition is not very
clear. "Who is professionally accreditated to deal with
individuals in difficulties, through the use of such techniques
as lie within the field of social work, of clinical psychology,
of psychiatry" (1); "some governmental boards recognize
a person with some special training to function as a licensed
psychotherapist: one trained in social work; one trained in school;
one trained in counseling psychology" (1); "who is
qualified to make use of all such resources (psychotherapy) in
aiding an individual" (1); "in some locales the term
has taken on a legal definition and may be formally distinguished
from that of psychologist" (1); "in most places where
psychotherapy is practiced no special qualifications are legally
required" (2)
Psychologist's fallacy
The last instance of a term which refers
to the figure of psychologist relates to the psychologist's fallacy.
Such a term is unusual because it suggests the existence of a
certain distrust as regards the same category as psychologist.
This characteristic seems to be fairly widespread in the mind
of the authors we analyzed and refers mainly to a predisposition
such that "a psychologist reads into someone else's mind
what is present in his own" (2); "projecting into the
mind or behavior of another individual what is actually in the
mind of a psychologist or what he believes is logical and appropriate
in the situation" (2); "reading into the mind the psychologist
is examining what is true of his own" (1). In one word,
the bagbear of "projection" (1) is evoked.
Such a mistake of attributing one’s own experiences to another
is suggested in some definitions and defined quite explicitly
or clearly in other definitions: "attributing to a specific
behavior the properties, esp. the motivations, that can seem
'logically necessary' to it, rather than examining the behavior:
e.g., attributing to a child the motives that an adult in the
same situation would have had" (1); "an error of method
and interpretation which consists in attributing to a mental
process all the characteristics which seem to the psychologist
to be logically necessary from his knowledge of the relations
of the process, the psychologist thus confusing his own knowledge
about the process with the subject's direct experience during
the process" (1); "a common instance is the attributing
of a human mental process to an animal" (1).
Only one author mentions the above phenomenon so as to minimize
it even though in an unclear way: "the fallacy is ill-named;
it is very unpsychological" (1).
Discussion
From these data we can infer: that psychologists
think that a definition of themselves is too obvious to be produced
or that they are not able to express a clear self definition.
The second hypothesis seems more likely, i. e., they are not
able to express a clear definition of themselves. However, from
the sample of the specialized dictionaries we examined it is
apparent that psychologists are entirely dedicated to defining
scientific and technical terms rather than to defining themselves.
The definitions are very general and very synthetical. Besides,
they appear historically backward, compared to the current reality
of the profession, expecially the reference to teaching, studying,
and researching which is much more frequent than the reference
to practice and to application. On the contrary, all over the
world psychologists are now much more often practitioners and
applied psychologists rather than researchers. Principally, all
of the areas of clinical intervention and health services are
almost completely ignored by the definitions of psychologist
we observed in the above dictionaries.
The space attributed to the definitions of psychiatrist, in the
specialized dictionaries we analyzed, appears exaggerated compared
to the definitions of psychologist. Again, we have to remark
that the same psychologists attribute to psychiatrists a tendency
to application, to intervention, and to treatment of patients
which does not seem to correspond to the everyday reality of
the everyday work of psychologists. The psychopathological area
seems in short to be attributed almost exclusively to psychiatrists.
More particularly: the diagnostic activity appears only with
reference to psychiatrists. More or less the same occurs for
the activities of prevention.
In conclusion, the definition of psychologist which emerges from
our jury of privileged witnesses includes a few principal concepts:
training, fields of interest, research, teaching, profession,
vocational settings, not a doctor, not a psychiatrist, cannot
prescribe drugs, and in reality is concerned just minimally with
psychotherapy, psychological diagnosis, and prevention.
In light of these findings it seems clear that what in the literature
is often defined as a misunderstanding by the public of the image
of psychologists is perhaps unintentionally due, in part, to
the lack of clarity of the definition of psychologist by psychologists
themselves.
List of analyzed
dictionaries
AAVV (1973). Psychology Encyclopedia. Guilford
Connecticut: Dushkin.
Benner, D.G. (1985). Baker Encyclopedia of Psychology. Grand
Rapids MI: Baker Book House.
Bruno, F.J. (1986). Dictionary of Key Words in Psychology. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Brussel, J.A., La Fond Cantlazaar, G. (1967). The Layman's Dictionary
of Psychiatry. New York: Barnes & Noble.
Chaplin, J.P. (1968). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Dell.
Chaplin, J.P. (1985). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Laurel.
Dorland, W.A.N. (1981). Dorland's illustrated Medical Dictionary.
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
English, H.B. (1928). A Student's Dictionary of Psychological
Terms. Yellow Springs OH: Antioch.
English, H.B. (1934). A Student's Dictionary of Psychological
Terms. New York: Harper & Brothers.
English, H.B., English, A.C. (1958). A Comprehensive Dictionary
of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms (a guide to usage).
New York: David McKay.
Evans, C. (1978). Psychology. A dictionary of the Mind, Brain
and Behaviour. London: Arrow Books.
Eysenck, M.W. (1990). The Blackwell Dictionary of Cognitive Psychology.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Goldenson R.M. (1970). The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Psychology,
Psychiatry and Mental Health. Garden City NY: Doubleday &
C.
Goodwin, D.M. (1989). A Dictionary of Neuropsychology. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Gregory, R.L., Zangwill, O.L. (1987). The Oxford Companion to
the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Harré, R., Lamb, R. (1983). The Encyclopedic Dictionary
of Psychology. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.
Harré, R., Lamb, R. (1986). The Dictionary of Developmental
and Educational Psychology. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.
Harré, R., Lamb, R. (1986). The Dictionary of Personality
and Social Psychology. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.
Harré, R., Lamb, R. (1986). The Dictionary of Physiological
and Clinical Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell.
Harriman, P.L. (1947). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Wisdom.
Harriman, P.L. (1965). Handbook of Psychological Terms. Totowa
(NJ): Littlefield, Adams & Co.
Heidenreich, C.A. (1970). A Dictionary of General Psychology:
Basic Terminology and Key Concepts. Dubuque IOWA:Kendall/Hunt.
Hugon, P.D. (1928). Our Minds and our Motives. A Dictionary of
Human Behavior. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Kaplan, H.I., Sadock, B.J. (1991). Comprehensive Glossary of
Psychiatry and Psychology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Kuper, J. (1988). A Lexicon of Psychology, Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis.
London: Routledge.
Kupper, W.H., (with a foreword of Kelley, D.M.) (1953). Dictionary
of Psychiatry and Psychology. Paterson 3 NJ. The Colt Press.
Moore, B.E., Fine, B.D. (1968). A Glossary of Psychoanalytic
Terms and Concepts. New York: The American Psychoanalytic Association.
Popplestone, J.A., White McPherson, M. (1988). Dictionary of
Concepts in General Psychology. New York: Greenwood Press.
Reber, A.S. (1985). The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. New
York: Viking.
Rycroft, C. (1968). A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis.
New York:Basic Books.
Statt, D. (1981). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Barnes
& Noble.
Statt, D.A. (1990). The Concise Dictionary of Psychology. London:
Routledge.
Stedman, T.L. (1982). Illustrated Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Stone, E.M. (1988). American Psychiatric Glossary. Washington:
American Psychiatric Press.
Stratton, P., Hayes, N. (1988). A Student's Dictionary of Psychology.
London: Arnold.
Sutherland, S. (1989). MacMillan Dictionary of Psychology. London:
MacMillan.
Walrond-Skinner, S (1986). A Dictionary of Psychotherapy. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Walton, H. (1985). Dictionary of Psychiatry. Oxford: Blackwell.
Warren, H.C. (1934). Dictionary of Psychology. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.
White, O.R. (1971). A Glossary of Behavioral Terminology. Champaign
(IL): Research Press Company.
Wilkening H.E. (1973). The Psychology Almanac. Monterey CA: Brooks/
Cole.
Wilkening, H., Nan Dycke, L. (1958). A Student's Psychology Handbook.
San Francisco CA: Chandler.
Wolman, B.B. (1973). Dictionary of Behavioral Science. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Wolman, B.B. (1989). Dictionary of Behavioral Science. San Diego:
Academic Press.
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Webb A.R. 1989. What's in a question? Three methods for investigating
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Webb A.R., Speer J.R. 1986. Prototype of a profession: Psychology's
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Correspondence concerning this article should
be addressed to Felice Perussia, Dipartimento di Psicologia,
Università di Torino, via Lagrange 3, 10123 Torino, Italy.
Tel: 039-11-549475. Fax: 039-11-549653
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